signed char or unsigned char?

September 17, 2017

Yesterday I debugged an interesting bug: sqlite test suite was hanging up on csv parsing test on powerpc32 and powerpc64 platforms. But other platforms were fine! ia64 was ok, hppa was ok, sparc was ok. Thus it’s not (just) endianness issue or stack growth direction. What could it be?

It took me a while to debug the issue but it boiled down to an infinite loop of trying to find EOF when reading a file. Let’s look at the simplified version of buggy code in sqlite:

#include <stdio.h> /* #define EOF (-1) */

int main() {
    int n = 0;
    FILE * f = fopen ("/dev/null", "rb"); // supposed to have 0 bytes
    for (;;) {
        char c = fgetc (f); // truncate 'int' to char
        if (c == EOF) break;
        ++n;
    }
    return n;
}

The code is supposed reach end of file (or maybe ‘xFF’ symbol) and finish. Normally it’s exactly what happens:

$ x86_64-pc-linux-gnu-gcc a.c -o a && ./a && echo $?
0

But not on powerpc64:

$ powerpc64-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc a.c -o a && ./a && echo $?
<hung>

The bug here is simple: c == EOF promotes both operands char c and -1 to int. Thus for EOF case condition looks like that:

((int)(char)(-1) == -1)

So why does it never fire on powerpc64? Because it’s an unsigned char platform! As a result it looks like two different conditions:

((int)0xff == -1) // powerpc64

((int)(-1) == -1) // x86_64

Once we know the problem we can force x86_64 to hang as well by using -funsigned-char gcc option:

$ x86_64-pc-linux-gnu-gcc a.c -o a -funsigned-char && ./a && echo $?
<hung>

I did not encounter bugs related to char signedness for quite a while.

What are other platforms defaulting to unsigned char? I tried the simple hack (I’ve encountered it today due to changes in c++11 to forbid narrowing conversion in initializers):

$ cat a.cc
char c[] = { -1 };

for cxx in /usr/bin/*-g++; do echo -n "$cxx "; $cxx -c a.cc 2>/dev/null && echo SIGNED || echo UNSIGNED; done | sort -k2

/usr/bin/afl-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/alpha-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/hppa-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/hppa2.0-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/i686-w64-mingw32-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/ia64-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/m68k-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/mips64-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/sh4-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/sparc-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/sparc64-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/x86_64-HEAD-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/x86_64-UNREG-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/x86_64-pc-linux-gnu-g++ SIGNED
/usr/bin/x86_64-w64-mingw32-g++ SIGNED

/usr/bin/aarch64-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/armv5tel-softfloat-linux-gnueabi-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/armv7a-hardfloat-linux-gnueabi-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/armv7a-unknown-linux-gnueabi-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/powerpc-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/powerpc64-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/powerpc64le-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ UNSIGNED
/usr/bin/s390x-unknown-linux-gnu-g++ UNSIGNED

Or in a shorter form:

signed: alpha, hppa, x86, ia64, m68k, mips, sh, sparc
unsigned: arm, powerpc, s390

Why would compiler prefer one signedness over another? The answer is the underlying Instruction Set Architecture. Or … not :), read on!.

Let’s look at generated code for two simple functions fetching single char from memory into register and compare generated code:

signed   long sc2sl (signed   char * p) { return *p; }
unsigned long uc2ul (unsigned char * p) { return *p; }

Alpha

Alpha is a 64-bit architecture. Does not support unaligned reads in its basic ISA. You have been warned.

; alpha-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
                     ;     example:  0x12345(BB address, p)
                     ;               |  0x12346(CC address, p+1)
                     ;               v  v
                     ; mem: [  .. AA BB CC DD .. ]
                     ;               a0 = 0x12345
    lda     t0,1(a0) ; load address: t0 = p+1
                     ;               t0 = 0x12346 (a0 + 1)
    ldq_u   v0,0(a0) ; load unaligned: v0 = *(long*)(align(p))
                     ;               v0 = *(long*)0x12340
                     ;               v0 = 0xDDCCBBAA????????
    extqh   v0,t0,v0 ; extract actual byte into MSB position
                     ;               v0 = v0 << 16
                     ;               v0 = 0xBBAA????????0000
    sra     v0,56,v0 ; get sign-extended byte using arithmetic shift-right
                     ;               v0 = v0 >> 56
                     ;               v0 = 0xFFFFFFFFFFFFFFBB
    ret              ; return

uc2ul:
   ldq_u   v0,0(a0)  ; load unaligned: v0 = *(long*)(align(p))
   extbl   v0,a0,v0  ; extract byte in v0
   ret

In this case Alpha handles unsigned load slightly nicer (does not require arithmetic shift and shift offset computation). It takes quite a bit of time to understand sc2sl implementation.

creemj noted on #gentoo-alpha BWX ISA extension (enabled with -mbwx in gcc):

; alpha-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -mbwx -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    ldbu    v0,0(a0)
    sextb   v0,v0 ; sign-extend-byte
    ret
uc2ul:
    ldbu    v0,0(a0)
    ret

Here signed load requires one instruction to amend default-unsigned load semantics.

HPPA (PA-RISC)

Currently HPPA userland supports only 32-bit mode on linux. Similar to many RISC architectures its branching instructions take two clock cycles to execute. By convention it means the next instruction right after branch (bv) is also executed.

; hppa2.0-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    ldb 0(r26),ret0         ; load byte
    bv r0(rp)               ; return
     extrw,s ret0,31,8,ret0 ; sign-extend 8 bits into 31

uc2ul:
    bv r0(rp)     ; return
     ldb 0(r26),ret0

Similar to Alpha signed chars require one more arithmetic operation.

x86

64-bit mode:

; x86_64-pc-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    movsbq (%rdi),%rax ; load/sign-extend byte to quad
    retq
uc2ul:
    movzbl (%rdi),%eax ; load/zero-extend byte to long
    retq

Note the difference between target operands (64 vs. 32 bits). x86-64 implicitly zeroes out register part for us in 64-bit mode.

32-bit mode:

; x86_64-pc-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -m32 -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    mov    0x4(%esp),%eax
    movsbl (%eax),%eax
    ret

uc2ul:
    mov    0x4(%esp),%eax
    movzbl (%eax),%eax
    ret

No surprises here. Argument is passed through stack.

ia64

ia64 “instructions” are huge. They are 128-bit long and encode 3 real instructions. Result of memory fetch is not used in the same bundle thus we need at least two bundles to fetch and shift. (I don’t know why yet, either in order to avoid memory stall in the same bundle or it’s a “Write ; Read-Write” conflict on r8 in a single bundle)

; ia64-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
  [MMI] nop.m 0x0
        ld1 r8=[r32]     # load byte (implicit zero-extend)
        nop.i 0x0;;
  [MIB] nop.m 0x0
        sxt1 r8=r8       # sign-extend
        br.ret.sptk.many b0;;
uc2ul:
  [MIB] ld1 r8=[r32]     # load byte (implicit zero-extend)
        nop.i 0x0
        br.ret.sptk.many b0;;

Unsigned char load requires fewer instructions (no additional shift required).

m68k

For some reason frame pointer is still preserved on -O2. I’ve disabled it with -fomit-frame-pointer to make assembly shorter:

; m68k-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    moveal %sp@(4),%a0 ; arguments are passed through stack (as would be in i386)
    moveb %a0@,%d0     ; load byte
    extbl %d0          ; sign-extend result
    rts

uc2ul:
    moveal %sp@(4),%a0
    clrl %d0          ; zero destination register
    moveb %a0@,%d0    ; load byte
    rts

Both functions are similar. Both require arithmetic fiddling.

mips

Similar to HPPA has the same rule of executing one instruction after branch instruction.

; mips64-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    jr      ra
     lb      v0,0(a0) ; load byte (sign-extend)

uc2ul:
    jr      ra
     lbu     v0,0(a0) ; load byte (zero-extend)

Both functions are taking exactly one instruction.

SuperH

Similar to HPPA has the same rule of executing one instruction after branch instruction.

; sh4-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    rts
     mov.b   @r4,r0 ; load byte (sign-extend)

uc2ul:
    mov.b   @r4,r0 ; load byte (sign-extend)
    rts
     extu.b  r0,r0 ; zero-extend result

Here unsigned load requires one instruction to amend default-signed load semantics.

SPARC

Similar to HPPA has the same rule of executing one instruction after branch instruction.

; sparc-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    retl
     ldsb  [ %o0 ], %o0

uc2ul:
    retl
     ldub  [ %o0 ], %o0

Both functions are taking exactly one instruction.

ARM

; armv5tel-softfloat-linux-gnueabi-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -c a.c && armv5tel-softfloat-linux-gnueabi-objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    ldrsb   r0, [r0] ; load/sign-extend
    bx      lr

uc2ul:
    ldrb    r0, [r0] ; load/zero-extend
    bx      lr

Both functions are taking exactly one instruction.

PowerPC

Powerpc generates quite inefficient code for -fPIC mode. Enabling -fno-PIC by default.

; powerpc-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -fno-PIC -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    lbz     r3,0(r3) ; load-byte/zero-extend
    extsb   r3,r3    ; sign-extend
    blr
    nop

uc2ul:
    lbz     r3,0(r3) ; load-byte/zero-extend
    blr

Here signed load requires one instruction to amend default-unsigned load semantics.

S390

64-bit mode:

; s390x-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -fno-PIC -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    icmh    %r2,8,0(%r2) ; insert-characters-under-mask-64
    srag    %r2,%r2,56   ; shift-right-single-64
    br      %r14

uc2ul:
    llgc    %r2,0(%r2) ; load-logical-character
    br      %r14

Most esoteric instruction set :) It looks like unsigned loads are slightly shorter here.

“31”-bit mode (note -m31):

; s390x-unknown-linux-gnu-gcc -m31 -O2 -fomit-frame-pointer -fno-PIC -c a.c && objdump -d a.o

sc2sl:
    icm     %r2,8,0(%r2) ; insert-characters-under-mask-64
    sra     %r2,24       ; shift-right-single
    br      %r14

uc2ul:
    lhi     %r1,0        ; load-halfword-immediate
    ic      %r1,0(%r2)   ; insert-character
    lr      %r2,%r1      ; register-to-register(?) move
    br      %r14

Surprisingly in 31-bit mode signed stores are slightly shorter. But it looks like uc2ul could be shorter by eliminating lr.

Parting words

At least from ISA standpoint some architectures treat signed char and unsigned char equally and could pick any signedness. Others differ quite a bit.

Here is my silly table:

architecture	signedness	preferred signedness	match
alpha	SIGNED	UNSIGNED	NO
arm	UNSIGNED	AMBIVALENT	YES
hppa	SIGNED	UNSIGNED	NO
ia64	SIGNED	UNSIGNED	NO
m68k	SIGNED	AMBIVALENT	YES
mips	SIGNED	AMBIVALENT	YES
powerpc	UNSIGNED	UNSIGNED	YES
s390(64)	UNSIGNED	UNSIGNED	YES
sh	SIGNED	SIGNED	YES
sparc	SIGNED	AMBIVALENT	YES
x86	SIGNED	AMBIVALENT	YES

What do we see here:

alpha follows the majority of architecture in char signedness but pays for it a lot.
arm could have been signed just fine (for this tiny silly test)
hppa and ia64 might be unsigned and balance the table a bit (6/5 versus 8/3) :)

Have fun!